抖阴旅行射

Introduction

听dates back听as early as the 15th century B.C.E. in Mesopotamia and Egypt. Early on, glassmakers knew by mixing metallic oxides into the ingredients and popular colors included various shades of blue, as well as shades of yellow, green, blue, purple, and red. Glass began to be in the middle of the 1st millennium B.C.E., showing up in Etruscan contexts, as in an 听from an Etruscan tomb,听as well as in the Greek colonies of southern Italy and Sicily. A specifically Roman glass industry, however, seems to have developed in the middle of the 1st century B.C.E., influenced by . Glass played many roles in ancient Rome, being used for tablewares, toilet items, jewelry, storage and transportation, mosaics, and so on. Because of its fragile nature, much of the glass that has survived to the modern period is broken, but the 抖阴旅行射 collection contains 17 whole or nearly-whole vessels that contribute to our understanding of glass in the ancient Roman world.听

The originated in 1969 with a gift from the May Company to the University of Colorado Museum of Natural History听of an Eastern Mediterranean听amphoriskos, along with a stone alabastron from Macedonia (see Appendix).听In 1979 H. Medill Sarkisian donated to the 抖阴旅行射 Museum of Natural History 16 vessels, along with 16 African pieces, from the collection in his store in Denver. The two remaining pieces in the collection have no records of their acquisition.听The collection consists of two pieces from the eastern Mediterranean and 15 Roman pieces (1). The collection was transferred in its entirety from the 抖阴旅行射 Museum of Natural History to the 抖阴旅行射 Art Museum in 2008.

Since all of the pieces come from private collections, none of them have any or definite provenance.听The collection is most notable for its poor condition.听Two pieces have been shattered and repaired ineptly.听Two more are cracked.听Two more have rust stains from bad mounts听and one has been glued or otherwise permanently attached to a metal stand.听听补苍诲听flaking are common throughout the collection.听This weathering is no doubt due to the age of the pieces, but the rest of the damage described above is the result of maltreatment in the last three centuries (2).听

Accompanying this catalogue are student-created essays on the basic history and uses of glass 补苍诲听how glass was made in ancient Rome.

Organization of the Catalogue

Each entry in the catalogue contains the following information:

• Museum accession number
• Means of acquisition and transfers (if known)
• Dimensions (height and greatest diameter)
• Likely provenance
• Date
• Classification (if known)
  • All Roman pieces are classified by听Isings Form and Harden Fabric.听Isings Forms are based on the shape of the vessel, number of handles, and decorations.听Harden Fabrics refer to the characteristics of the glass of each vessel, specifically color, quality (i.e., number of impurities), and weathering.听No. 1, an amphoriskos, is classified by Grose Group, which is determined largely by shape and the position of the handles (3).听
• Description
  • The description covers shape, color, decoration, condition, repairs (if any), 补苍诲听method of manufacture. Shape is described from "top to bottom, as is customary with glass vessels because the finishing of the rim is the most defining part of a blown vessel" (4).听
• Comments
  • These include remarks on the function and distribution of the type as a whole, peculiarities in the individual specimen, problems with classification, and similar vessels from other collections and sites.

See the individual entries for additional information and discussion of the objects.听

Catalogue

1.听Eastern Mediterranean Amphoriskos (抖阴旅行射 22,726) [2008.18.2.1]

Gift of the May Company (1969)
听(2008)
Height:听7.9 cm
Diameter (max.):听4.8听cm
Eastern Mediterranean, late 6th to early 4th century B.C.E.

Classification: Grose Group I.3 (5)听

Description: Mouth, neck, and part of handle missing. Preserved section of handle attached to top of shoulder. Body ovoid with flat base knob. Royal blue body with opaque aqua and yellow-orange zigzag pattern.听One unmarvered yellow-orange stripe at the top of zigzag pattern, two more below, and one at base of vessel (very similar to the coloring of Schlick-Nolte 2002, no. V-11). Body repaired with wax or hot glue.听Core-formed听(i.e., hot glass is applied to a removable core, either by dipping or trailing threads of glass over the core as it rotates).听Handles and base knob applied separately. (6).

Comment: This type of amphoriskos, which was probably used as an ointment bottle, is ubiquitous in the eastern Mediterranean, such places as Egypt (Honey 1946, pl. 1E), Israel (Eliayu Dobkin Pavillion听1981,听p. 18), Lebanon (Baramki 1967,听pl. V), and Georgia (Vickers and Kakhidze 2001, fig. 21), as well as in Italy (Mariacher 1961, pl. 2), in the 6th through 3rd听centuries B.C.E.听This coloring, which is also rather commonplace, is probably in imitation of Murrhine ware (7).听Other comparable examples are Eisen 1927, pl. 4;听Richter 1974, fig. 515; Hayes 1975,听no. 12;听Constable-Maxwell Collection听1979, lot 5;听and Grose 1989, nos. 107 and 108.听A听听at the Art Institute of Chicago and a听听show how common the style was and suggest what 抖阴旅行射's vessel may have looked like when it was complete.听

The original museum record of this vessel indicates that the neck was missing at the time of accessioning, but makes no mention of the body being broken, suggesting this damage occurred since 1969.

2. Eastern Mediterranean听Ribbed Cup or Bowl (抖阴旅行射 29,003) [2008.18.2.3]

Gift of H. Medill Sarkisian and Justine Sarkisian Rodriguez (1979)
听(2008)
Height:听7.1听cm
Diameter (max.):听9.4听cm
Eastern Mediterranean, 1st century B.C.E. to 1st century C.E.

Description: Everted rim with unworked edge turning in at top. Slight shoulder. Body bulges out in center. Pinched-out ribs extening from just above middle of body to underside of base. Flat bottom.听Pale greenish tint.听Some iridescence听and a great deal of white incrustation.听Mold-blown.

Comment: This type of vessel, sometimes known as a听zarte Rippenschale, bears some resemblance to Isings Form 17, but without marvered threads听(8).听Decorated versions of this type (e.g. Eisen 1927, pl. 37;听Megaw 1957,听pl. 4f;听von Saldern 1980, pl. 2) have similar bodies.听Other, simpler examples are听Fitzwilliam Museum听1978, nos. 60a and b;听Gill 2000, p. 102;听and also Avigad 1983,听fig. 219, a fragment of a bowl from Jerusalem dating to the early 1st century B.C.E. (or earlier).听See, also, Weinberg and Stern 2009 G 213.听

3. Shallow Pillar-Molded Bowl (抖阴旅行射 28,998) [2008.18.2.4]

Gift of H. Medill Sarkisian and Justine Sarkisian Rodriguez (1979)
听(2008)
Height:听3.8 cm
Diameter (max.):听10.2听cm
Roman, 1st century C.E.

Classification: Isings Form 3a;听Harden Fabric 2 or 3

Description: Unworked lip on shallow bowl with somewhat sagged profile. 21听pillar-molded ribs听descend from pronounced shoulder to flat base of vessel.听Much iridescence听and flaking, to the extent that the original color is not discernable (at present it is several shades of brown).听Sagged (i.e., heated on a dome-shaped mold)听(9).

Comment: The weathering of this bowl has been extensive听and it has been abused in other ways, as indicated by a patch of glue-like substance on side.听Nevertheless, the shape and what remains of the original coloring suggests this bowl may be mosaic (cf. Eisen 1927,听pl. 32;听von Saldern 1968, no. 12). Other examples of this shape are Hayes 1975, no. 50听and Grose 1989, no. 232.

4. Ribbed Bowl (抖阴旅行射 28,995) [2008.18.2.5]

Gift of H. Medill Sarkisian and Justine Sarkisian Rodriguez (1979)
听(2008)
Height:听4.8 cm
Diameter (max.): 17.8 cm
Roman, 1st century C.E.

Classification: Isings Form 3c;听Harden Fabric 1

Description: Slightly outcurved rim on a wide bowl. 65 relatively evenly spaced ribs around center of bowl, reaching neither the lip nor the base. Colorless, almost听transparent glass with green tint.听Chip missing from rim.听Some iridescence听and a large rusty patch extending in an arc from the rim to the bottom.听Sagged.

Comment: Not enough examples of this type come from an archaeological context to establish a definite chronology; a handful of fragments from the western provinces of the Roman Empire belong to the 1st century C.E. (10).听Other similar examples are Eisen 1927, pl. 40;听Hayes 1975,听no. 47;听Fitzwilliam Museum 1978,听no. 32c;听Constable-Maxwell Collection 1979,听lot 38;听and Grose 1989,听no. 234.

The shape of the rust damage indicates either a repair of a large break听or that at one time the bowl was on display on a bad metal mounting, presumably propped up like a modern decorative plate.

5. Flask (抖阴旅行射 28,997) [2008.18.2.6]

Gift of H. Medill Sarkisian and Justine Sarkisian Rodriguez (1979)
听(2008)
Height:听15.7听cm
Diameter (max.):听10.2 cm
Roman, 1st century C.E.

Classification: Isings Form 70;听Harden Fabric 3

Description: Unworked lip with short, vaguely听funnel-shaped mouth. At junction of funnel and neck is a closed tubular fold. It is hollow on the inside but appears as an added coil from the exterior. Relatively tall cylindrical neck with abrupt transition to globular body. Rounded base. Original color obscured by听iridescence.听Much flaking.听Blown.

Comment: Vessberg 1953,听pl. 58, no. 110;听Hayes 1975,听no.听146;听Constable-Maxwell Collection听1979, lot 125;听and Stern 2001,听nos. 37, 38 and 103: all belong to Isings Form 70听and all have similar bodies to this flask. The rims of all of these vessels, however,听are folded downwards, whereas the fold in the rim of this flask creates a ridge.听The dating of this vessel is based on the dates of the examples above and Isings鈥� remarks on the form.听This stylistic variation is slight enough that this flask could easily have been made in the same area as any of the examples cited.听The rim of Davidson 1952,听no. 796, which dates to the 15th century C.E. or later, is also comparable,听as is Weinberg and Stern 2009 G 16, which dates to the 16th to 17th century C.E.听

6. Bottle with Funnel Mouth (抖阴旅行射 29,000) [2008.18.2.7]

Gift of H. Medill Sarkisian and Justine Sarkisian Rodriguez (1979)
听(2008)
Height:听7.6听cm
Diameter (max.): 5.1 cm
Roman, late 2nd听century C.E.

Classification: Isings Form 92;听Harden Fabric 6

Description: Uneven lip with short funnel-shaped mouth. Narrow cylindrical neck that tapers out toward bottom. Smooth transition from neck to bulbous body with rounded base. Purple with white听trail would spirally from听base to middle of neck.听Some iridescence听and flaking.听Blown, thread applied afterwards听(11).听

Comment: The purple color comes from the exposure of manganese compounds in the glass to sunlight听(12).听Similar examples are Eisen 1927, pl. 90;听Dusenbery 1967,听no. 17;听Hayes 1975, no. 112;听Fitzwilliam Museum 1978, no. 93c;听Constable-Maxwell Collection 1979,听lot 55;听Whitehouse 2001, no. 700; Schlick-Nolte 2002, no. V-51;听and Weinberg and Stern 2009, G 128.听

7. Unguentarium (抖阴旅行射 28,994) [2008.18.2.8]

Gift of H. Medill Sarkisian and Justine Sarkisian Rodriguez (1979)
听(2008)
Height: 12.2听cm
Diameter (max.):听2.5 cm
Roman, 1st century C.E.

Classification: Isings Form 9;听Harden Fabric 7

Description: Rounded rim folded in. Tall cylindrical neck with smooth transition to rounded shoulder. Body tapers conically downward and ends in rounded boss at bottom. Dark blue. Large bubbles in fabric. Opaque due to dirt encrustation, especially on neck. Solid lip of dirt or grit inside that rattles when shaken.听Blown.

Comment: Most other examples of this type have rounded bodies that taper downward (e.g., Isings鈥� line-drawing (13)), so this piece could be a slightly later development or a regional variation.听The closest parallels (all of which have rounded bodies) are Simonett 1941, fig. 62, no. 16a;听Hayes 1975, nos. 102 and 103;听Fleming 1996, fig. 18 (which is mold blown);听and Whitehouse 2001, no. 770.

8. Unguentarium (no 抖阴旅行射 accession number) [2008.18.2.9]

Gift of H. Medill Sarkisian and Justine Sarkisian Rodriguez (1979)
听(2008)
Height: 11.2听cm
Diameter (max.): 1.9 cm
Roman, Late 1st century C.E.

Classification:听Isings Forms 8;听Harden Fabric 9

Description:听Rounded rim, folded in. Tall cylindrical neck flares at both ends. Slight constriction toward base of neck. Smooth transition to base with slightly flared straight walls. Base concave. Green.听Iridescence听near rim and central constriction, with a pale residue inside. Modern metal stand, glued to base.听Blown.

Comment: Vessels of this type appear as early as Augustan times at Magdalensberg, Austria, and in the second half of the 1st century C.E.听they become very numerous. For example, large quantities of them have been found at Pompeii and Herculaneum (14).听The fabric of this specimen is suggestive of mass production, which supports a late 1st century C.E. date. Similar examples include Hayes 1975,听nos. 235, 570, 630, and 666;听Fitzwilliam Museum听1978,听no. 64b;听Fleming 1996, fig. 16;听and Whitehouse 1997, nos. 228 and 241.听

The metal stand affixed to the vessel and the and the residue inside may be evidence that this unguentarium was once used as an inkwell听(15).

9. Candlestick Unguentarium (抖阴旅行射 29,004) [2008.18.2.10]

Gift of H. Medill Sarkisian and Justine Sarkisian Rodriguez (1979)
听(2008)
Height: 14.5听cm
Diameter (max.): 5.3 cm
Roman, 2nd century C.E.

Classification:听Isings Form 82A(1);听Harden Fabric 9

Description: Flat rim folded over unevenly. Tall, cylindrical neck flares outward at both ends. Smooth transition to squat globular body.听Original color obscured by white debris, probably pale green. Body shattered and repaired by gluing or cementing; hence body is solid and completely filled in.听Blown.

Comment: Though this form is classified as Isings Form 82A(1), it differs in a number of ways: there is no constriction at the base of the neck, the base is rounded rather than flat (though the vessel can still stand on its own), and the neck tapers out at both ends. However, these differences may not altogether be significant听(16).听The unevenness of the rim suggests mass production. Close parallels are Hayes 1975, nos. 227 (from Palestine), 253听and 498 (both from Cyprus), and 573;听and Whitehouse 1997, nos. 251 and 270.

10. Pyriform Unguentarium (抖阴旅行射 29,002) [2008.18.2.11]

Gift of H. Medill Sarkisian and Justine Sarkisian Rodriguez (1979)
听(2008)
Height: 5.6听cm
Diameter (max.):听4.8 cm
Roman, 3rd century C.E.

Classification:听Isings Form 26a;听Harden Fabric 3

Description:听Wide mouth with rounded rim folded in. Relatively short neck with concave profile and smooth transition to globular body. Flattened base. Clear with bluish-green tint.听Some听iridescence听and flaking.听Blown.

Comment:听Six similar specimens are in the Royal Ontario Museum in Toronto (Hayes 1975, nos. 271, 272, 291, 294, 323 and 474). See also Goldman 1950, no. 25;听Isings 1971, no. 241 (at Heerlen);听Whitehouse 1997, nos. 286 and 289;听and Whitehouse 1998, no. 94.

11. Amphoriskos听(抖阴旅行射 28,996) [2008.18.2.12]

Gift of H. Medill Sarkisian and Justine Sarkisian Rodriguez (1979)
听(2008)
Height: 9.5听cm
Diameter (max.): 4.4听cm
Roman, 1st听century C.E.

Classification:听Isings Form 120a;听Harden Fabric 6

Description:听Irregular rim, folded-in, with wide mouth. Handle on one side connects rim to shoulder with pronounced attachment points. Short, irregularly-formed neck. Pronounced, rounded shoulder. Ovoid body. Base tapers to a rounded point.听Original color completely听obscured by听iridescence. Much flaking.听Blown,听handle added separately (17).

Comment:听The shape of this jug, which has also been described as "bomboid"听(18),听is straightforward, yet difficult to classify.听Isings Form 120a has a small base ring, but not a point. The shape of the body is closer to Form 60 (amphoriskos with a pointed base). Direct parallels are not forthcoming. Mariacher 1961, pl. 17;听Hayes 1975, no. 284; 补苍诲听Constable-Maxwell Collection听1979, lot 255, have globular bodies rather than ovoid, and Hayes 1975, nos. 286 and 339 have similar bodies except for the flattened base and pour spout. Hayes 1975,听no. 415听is close in shape, save for the ribs on the body. Perhaps the most similar is Charleston and Archer 1977, no. 8, which in all respects is very close to this jug except for the flattened base.

12. Sprinkler Flask (抖阴旅行射 22,320) [2008.18.2.13]

Gift of H. Medill Sarkisian and Justine Sarkisian Rodriguez (1979)
听(2008)
Height: 8.1听cm
Diameter (max.)听7.1听cm
Roman, 3rd century C.E.

Classification:听Harden Fabric 3

Description:听Wide, flat rim. Cylindrical neck, constricted at its base with abrupt transition to globular body. Small base foot. Greenish yellow inside, otherwise translucent.听Blown.听

Comment:听The constriction in the neck of this vessel allowed a bather to apply single drops of perfume to their bodies (19).听This sprinkler is a less elaborate version of such bottles as Hayes 1975,听no. 282, and Stern 2001, no. 140, which have faint diagonal ribs, 补苍诲听Fitzwilliam Museum听1978,听no. 105a, which has a honeycomb pattern.

Though there is no record as to when or how the museum acquired this piece, it has been part of the collection since at least 1979, as it was exhibited that year by the chemistry department as part of a lecture by听Cyril Stanley Smith, a metallurgist and science historian who worked on the Manhattan Project.

13. Sprinkler Flask (抖阴旅行射 28,999) [2008.18.2.14]

Gift of H. Medill Sarkisian and Justine Sarkisian Rodriguez (1979)
听(2008)
Height: 8.9听cm
Diameter (max.):听6.6 cm
Roman, 3rd century C.E.

Classification: Harden Fabric 4

Description:听Wide, flat lip with short neck. Constriction at base of neck. Bulbous body with rounded base. Eight short ribs or fins encircle body at irregular vertical positions.听Green.听Some听iridescence听and flaking.听Blown, ribs tweezed.

Comment:听The 抖阴旅行射 collection contains听another example of a Roman sprinkler. The shape of this sprinkler is closest to Stern 2001, no. 134, and the ribs resemble those of Stern 2001, no. 136.

14. Aryballos (抖阴旅行射 29,005) [2008.18.2.15]

Gift of H. Medill Sarkisian and Justine Sarkisian Rodriguez (1979)
听(2008)
Height: 8.3听cm
Diameter (max.): 6.4听cm
Roman, 3rd to 4th century C.E.

Classification:听Isings Form 61;听Harden Fabric 4 or debased Fabric 3

Description:听Thick rim folded out. Two trailed handles attached from either side of rim to shoulder. Short funnel neck. Body spherical, but somewhat flattened. Fluting on lower half of body. Relatively thick base concave with pontil mark (20).听Transparent with bluish-green tint.听Some听iridescence听and dirt. Crack beneath one handle.听Blown,听handles added separately.

Comment:听This design is in imitation of bronze and ceramic vessels of similar function (21).听Examples come from all over the Roman Empire, but a disproportionately large number have been excavated north of the Black Sea (22). Other examples are Isings 1971, no. 42 (in Heerlen);听Hayes 1975, no. 119;听and Sorokina 1987,听fig. 1.1.

15. Bottle with Funnel Neck (抖阴旅行射 28,992) [2008.18.2.16]

Gift of H. Medill Sarkisian 补苍诲听Justine Sarkisian Rodriguez (1979)
听(2008)
Height: 17.0 cm
Diameter (max.): 7.1听cm
Roman, 3rd to 4th century C.E.

Classification:听Isings Form 103;听Harden Fabric 4

Description:听Tall, narrow funnel neck with unworked rim. Base of neck slightly rounded and then constricted at shoulder. Globular body with flat base.听Iridescence听obscures original color. Much flaking. Some weathering on body from a bad metal mount (23).听Blown, perhaps in two pieces.听

Comment: This form generally has an unworked rim, but some examples (von Saldern 1980, no. 156听and Whitehouse 1997, no. 311) do have small lips. Other bottles with unworked rims are Clairmont 1963,听nos. 543, 544, and 546-9听and Hayes 1975, nos. 288, 289, and 541. An especially colorful version is Stern 2001, no. 129.

16. Flask with Funnel Neck (抖阴旅行射 28,993) [2008.18.2.17]

Gift of H. Medill Sarkisian and Justine Sarkisian Rodriguez (1979)
听(2008)
Height:听10.2 cm
Diameter (max.):听6.1 cm
Roman, 4th century C.E.

Classification:听Isings Form 104b;听Harden Fabric 4

Description:听Funnel mouth with rounded听rim. Bulbous听body, without base ring. Low relief fluting on body, resulting in nine ribs that reach halfway up body. Pontil mark on base. Green.听Some听iridescence听and flaking.听Blown, with ribs pinched during reheating.(24).

Comment:听Vessels of this sort were probably used as a table ware for wine and other liquids (25).听Examples of this form come from all over the Roman Empire. Similar examples are Harden 1966, fig. 10;听Stern 2001, nos. 104 and 105; Whitehouse 1997, no. 312; and possibly Gorin-Rosen 2004,听no. 11 (26).听See also Hayes 1975,听nos. 316 and 317, which have similar shapes but lack fluting.

17. Basket-Handled听Double Unguentarium [2008.18.2.18]

Gift of H. Medill Sarkisian and Justine Sarkisian Rodriguez (1979)
听(2008)
Height:听17.0 cm
Diameter (max.): 4.8听cm
Roman, 4th to 5th century C.E.

Classification:听Harden Fabric 9

Description:听High basket handle, rounded听and attached to either side of the folded-in rims of twin tubular bodies. Double chambers formed either by pinching single open vessel or folding over.听Bodies of adjoined tubes narrow slightly at center and appear wedged or pinched at base. Yellow with greenish tint. Crack at base of handle, apparently glued.听Blown.听

Comment:听The double unguentarium occurs almost exclusively in Syria and Palestine in the 4th and 5th centuries C.E. (27). A 4th century C.E. example of this type of handle comes from a tomb at Beit Fajjar in Palestine (Husseini 1935,听pl. 85, no. 3) (28). Other examples are Ayalon 1994,听fig. 5;听Stern 2001, no. 179; and Whitehouse 2001, no. 748. More elaborate versions are numerous, including even quadruple unguentaria听(29).听One specimen from Palestine seems to have been used for eye paint听and it is probable this vessel served a similar purpose (30).听

Appendix: A Macedonian Alabaster Vessel in the University of Colorado Museum

18. Stone听Alabastron (抖阴旅行射 22,718) [2008.18.2.2]

Gift of the May Company (1969)
听(2008)
Height:听8.9 cm
Diameter (max.):听4.8 cm
Macedonian, 4th century B.C.E.

Description:听Lip missing. Rim chipped but repaired by means of an adhesive bandage. Roughly cylindrical shape with slight increase in diameter at middle. Cream-grey alabaster (i.e., calcareous sinter). Some weathering on bottom. Probably听made with tubular drill听(31).

Comment: This vase was originally identified as Egyptian from the 1st millennium B.C.E. but was re-identified in 2017 as a 4th century B.C.E. Macedonian vessel by Dr. Sarah James.听

The term 'alabaster' was used in antiquity to refer to travertine, a type of limestone formed by the chemical precipitation of water saturated with dissolved calcium carbonate. There are two varieties of travertine:听calcerous tufa and calcareous sinter. The听latter was used by the Egyptians to make stone vessels. In the 18th century C.E. the term was used to refer to a form of gypsum that resembled travertine听and travertine was referred to as Egyptian alabaster or onyx marble, both of which terms are misleading (32).

Alabastra made of glass, constructed on the same motif as those of alabaster, were very numerous in Egypt and Syria throughout the 1st millennium B.C.E.听and spread throughout the eastern Mediterranean (33).听

Footnotes

1. Good introductions to Roman glass (with bibliographies) are Harden听1969听and Stern听1999.
2. For a brief introduction to the weathering of ancient glass, see Fleming听1997, p. 61-2.
3. Isings听1957; Harden听1936, p. 20-4; Grose听1987, p. 130-1.
4. Weinberg and Stern 2009: 17.听
5. This judgment is based primarily on the one surviving handle and the shape of the body.
6. For core-forming and references see Grose听1987, p. 31.听Core-forming creates a rough interior surface, which is visible in this vessel on account of its fragmentary condition.
7. See Tressaud and Vickers 2007.听On Murrhine ware see .
8. For听zarte Rippenschalen, see von Saldern听1980, p. 12-3.
9. See Grose听1987, p. 32听for a description of this technique.
10. Isings听1957, p. 20-1.
11. Stern听2001, p. 57.
12. Lucas听1962, p. 187.听For the standard chemical composition of Roman glass, see Brill听1967, p. 91听and Fleming听1997, p. 10.
13. Isings听1957, p. 25.
14. Whitehouse听1997, p. 136;听Isings听1957, p. 24.
15. This idea was suggested to me by Dr. Beth听Dusinberre.
16. See discussion at Whitehouse听1997, p. 147-8.
17. See Harden 1936, p. 16.
18. Kris Anderson, personal communication.
19. Eisen听1927, p. 333-6.
20. For pontil scars see Stern听1999, p. 448.
21. Isings听1957, p. 78-81.
22. Sorokina听1987, p. 40.
23. This judgment was made by my colleague Kris Anderson.
24. Stern听2001, p. 218.
25. Harden听1936, p. 185.
26. See Isings听1957, pp. 123-5听for western examples.
27. Harden听1969, p. 63, n. 91; also Charleston and Archer听1977, p. 74.
28. See also Harden听1966, fig. 9.
29. E.g., Marichar听1961, pl. 17; Baramki听1967, pl. 22; Harden听1969, pl. 11F; Hayes听1975, nos. 360 and 458; Charleston and Archer听1977, no. 12;听Fitzwilliam Museum听1978, no. 109; Fleming听1997, pls. 15 and 88.听Examples of quadruple unguentaria are听Constable-Maxwell Collection听1979, lots 243 and 245.
30. Stern听2001, p. 317.
31. Lucas听1962, p. 425-6.
32. Harrell听1990, p. 37-42.
33. Eisen听1927, p. 121-2.听For examples of glass alabastra from Egypt, see Honey听1946, pls. 1A and 1D.

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